Sejarah Inggris
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Dari Wikipedia, ensiklopedia bebas
"Norman England" redirects here. "Norman Inggris" beralih ke halaman ini. For the American director, see Norman England (director) . Untuk pemimpin Amerika, lihat Norman Inggris (sutradara) .
For other uses, see The History of England (disambiguation) . Untuk kegunaan lain, lihat Sejarah Inggris (disambiguasi) .
The history of England began with the arrival of humans thousands of years ago. Sejarah Inggris dimulai dengan kedatangan manusia ribuan tahun yang lalu. What is now England , within the United Kingdom , was inhabited by Neanderthals 230,000 years ago. Apa yang sekarang Inggris , dalam Inggris , dihuni oleh Neanderthal 230.000 tahun yang lalu. However, continuous human habitation dates to around 12,000 years ago, at the end of the last glacial period . Namun, tempat tinggal manusia terus menerus tanggal sekitar 12.000 tahun yang lalu, pada akhir zaman es terakhir . The region has numerous remains from the Mesolithic , Neolithic , and Bronze Age , such as Stonehenge and Avebury . Wilayah ini memiliki banyak tetap dari Mesolithic , Neolitikum , dan Zaman Perunggu , seperti Stonehenge dan Avebury . In the Iron Age , England, like all of Britain south of the Firth of Forth , was inhabited by the Celtic people known as the Britons , but also by some Belgae tribes (eg the Atrebates , the Catuvellauni and the Trinovantes ). Pada jaman besi , Inggris, seperti semua dari Inggris selatan Firth of Forth , dihuni oleh Celtic orang yang dikenal sebagai orang Inggris , tetapi juga oleh beberapa Belgae suku (misalnya Atrebates , yang Catuvellauni dan Trinovantes ). In AD 43 the Roman conquest of Britain began; the Romans maintained control of their province of Britannia through to the 5th century. Pada tahun 43 Masehi dalam penaklukan Romawi Inggris mulai, sedangkan Roma mempertahankan kendali mereka Provinsi Britannia hingga abad ke-5. 
The Roman departure opened the door for the Anglo-Saxon invasion , which is often regarded as the origin of England and the English people . The keberangkatan Roma membuka pintu bagi invasi Anglo-Saxon , yang sering dianggap sebagai asal Inggris dan orang Inggris . The Anglo-Saxons , a collection of various Germanic peoples , established several kingdoms that became the primary powers in what is now England and parts of southern Scotland . [ 1 ] They introduced the Old English language, which displaced the previous British language . The Anglo-Saxon , koleksi dari berbagai bangsa Jerman , beberapa kerajaan didirikan yang menjadi kekuatan utama dalam apa yang sekarang Inggris dan bagian selatan Skotlandia . [1] Mereka memperkenalkan Inggris Kuno bahasa, yang sebelumnya pengungsi bahasa Inggris . The Anglo-Saxons warred with British successor states in Wales , Cornwall , and the Hen Ogledd (Old North; the Brythonic -speaking parts of northern England and southern Scotland), as well as with each other. Anglo-Saxon berperang dengan negara pengganti Inggris di Wales , Cornwall , dan Ogledd Hen (Lama Utara; yang Brythonic berbicara bagian-Inggris utara dan Skotlandia selatan), serta dengan satu sama lain. Raids by the Vikings were frequent after about AD 800, and the Norsemen took control of large parts of what is now England . Penggerebekan oleh Viking itu sering setelah sekitar tahun 800, dan Viking mengambil alih sebagian besar dari apa yang sekarang Inggris . During this period several rulers attempted to unite the various Anglo-Saxon kingdoms, an effort that led to the emergence of the Kingdom of England by the 10th century. Selama periode ini beberapa penguasa berusaha untuk menyatukan berbagai kerajaan Anglo-Saxon, upaya yang menyebabkan munculnya Kerajaan Inggris pada abad ke 10.
In 1066, the Normans invaded and conquered England . Pada 1066, para Normandia menyerang dan menaklukkan Inggris . There was much civil war and battles with other nations throughout the Middle Ages . Ada banyak perang saudara dan pertempuran dengan bangsa lain sepanjang Abad Pertengahan . The Kingdom of England was a sovereign state until the reign of Richard I who made it a vassal of the Holy Roman Empire in 1194. Kerajaan Inggris adalah negara yang berdaulat sampai masa pemerintahan Richard I yang membuatnya pengikut dari Kekaisaran Romawi Suci pada tahun 1194. In 1212 during the reign of his brother John Lackland the Kingdom instead became a tribute-paying vassal of the Holy See [ 2 ] [ 3 ] until the 16th century when Henry VIII broke from the Catholic Church . Pada 1212 selama pemerintahan saudaranya John Lackland Kerajaan bukan menjadi pengikut-membayar upeti dari Tahta Suci [2] [3] sampai abad ke-16 ketika Henry VIII pecah dari Gereja Katolik . During the Renaissance , England was ruled by the Tudors . Selama Renaisans , Inggris diperintah oleh Tudor . England had conquered Wales in the 12th century and was then united with Scotland in the early 18th century to form the Kingdom of Great Britain . Inggris telah menaklukkan Wales pada abad ke-12 dan kemudian bersatu dengan Skotlandia pada abad ke-18 awal untuk membentuk Kerajaan Britania Raya . Following the Industrial Revolution , Great Britain ruled a worldwide Empire , the largest in the world. Setelah Revolusi Industri , Inggris memerintah di seluruh dunia Kekaisaran , yang terbesar di dunia. Following a process of decolonization in the 20th century the vast majority of the empire became independent; however, its cultural impact is widespread and deep in many countries of the present day. Setelah proses dekolonisasi di abad 20 sebagian besar kerajaan merdeka, namun dampak budaya adalah luas dan mendalam di banyak negara hari ini.
[ edit ] Prehistory [ sunting ] Prasejarah
Main article: Prehistoric Britain Artikel utama: Prasejarah Inggris
The first historical mention of the region is from the Massaliote Periplus , a sailing manual for merchants thought to date to the 6th century BC, although cultural and trade links with the continent had existed for millennia prior to this. Pytheas of Massilia wrote of his trading journey to the island around 325 BC. Menyebutkan historis pertama dari wilayah ini adalah dari Periplus Massaliote , manual berlayar bagi pedagang diperkirakan tanggal untuk 6 SM abad, meskipun dan perdagangan hubungan kebudayaan dengan benua telah ada selama ribuan tahun sebelum ini. Pytheas dari Massilia menulis tentang perdagangan nya perjalanan ke pulau sekitar 325 SM.
Later writers such as Pliny the Elder (quoting Timaeus ) and Diodorus Siculus (probably drawing on Poseidonius ) mention the tin trade from southern Britain, but there is little further historical detail of the people who lived there. Kemudian penulis-penulis seperti Pliny the Elder (mengutip Timaeus ) dan Diodorus Siculus (mungkin menggambar di Poseidonius ) menyebutkan perdagangan timah dari Inggris selatan, namun ada sedikit lebih detail sejarah orang-orang yang tinggal di sana.
Tacitus wrote that there was no great difference in language between the people of southern Britannia and northern Gaul and noted that the various nations of Britons shared physical characteristics with their continental neighbours. Tacitus menulis bahwa tidak ada perbedaan besar dalam bahasa antara orang Britannia selatan dan utara Gaul dan mencatat bahwa berbagai bangsa Inggris berbagi karakteristik fisik dengan tetangga kontinental mereka.
[ edit ] Roman Britain (Britannia) [ sunting ] Roma Inggris (Britania Raya)
Main article: Roman Britain Artikel utama: Roma Inggris
Julius Caesar invaded southern Britain in 55 and 54 BC and wrote in De Bello Gallico that the population of southern Britannia was extremely large and shared much in common with the Belgae of the Low Countries . Julius Caesar menginvasi Inggris selatan pada 55 dan 54 SM dan menulis dalam De Bello Gallico bahwa penduduk Britannia selatan sangat besar dan berbagi banyak kesamaan dengan Belgae dari Negara Rendah . Coin evidence and the work of later Roman historians have provided the names of some of the rulers of the disparate tribes and their machinations in what was Britannia. Coin bukti dan karya sejarawan Romawi telah memberikan nama-nama dari beberapa penguasa suku-suku yang berbeda dan intrik mereka dalam apa yang Britannia. Until the Roman Conquest of Britain , Britain's British population was relatively stable, and by the time of Julius Caesar 's first invasion, the British population of what was western old Britain was speaking a Celtic language generally thought to be the forerunner of the modern Brythonic languages . [ 5 ] After Julius Caesar abandoned Britain, it fell back into the hands of the Britons and the Belgae. Sampai Penaklukan Romawi Inggris , Inggris penduduk Inggris relatif stabil, dan pada saat Julius Caesar 's invasi pertama, Inggris populasi apa yang Inggris tua barat berbicara dalam bahasa Celtic umumnya dianggap sebagai pendahulu dari modern Brythonic bahasa . [5] Setelah Julius Caesar ditinggalkan Inggris, itu jatuh kembali ke tangan Inggris dan Belgae. The Romans began their second conquest of Britain in 43 AD, during the reign of Claudius . Bangsa Romawi mulai penaklukan kedua mereka dari Inggris pada 43 M, pada masa pemerintahan Claudius . They annexed the whole of what would become modern England and Wales over the next forty years and periodically extended their control over much of lowland Scotland. Mereka menganeksasi seluruh apa yang akan menjadi Inggris modern dan Wales selama empat puluh tahun berikutnya dan berkala diperpanjang kontrol mereka atas sebagian besar dataran rendah Skotlandia.
[ edit ] Post-Roman Britain [ sunting ] Pasca-Romawi Inggris
Main article: Sub-Roman Britain Artikel utama: Sub-Romawi Inggris
In the wake of the breakdown of Roman rule in Britain around 410, present day England was progressively settled by Germanic groups. Dalam bangun dari pemecahan kekuasaan Romawi di Inggris sekitar 410, Inggris hari saat ini semakin diselesaikan oleh Jerman kelompok. Collectively known as the Anglo-Saxons , these included Jutes from Jutland together with larger numbers of Saxons from northwestern Germany and Angles from what is now Schleswig-Holstein . [ 6 ] Prior to those settlements some Frisians invaded eastern Britain in the 250s. Kolektif dikenal sebagai Anglo-Saxon , ini termasuk Jutes dari Jutlandia bersama dengan sejumlah besar Saxon dari Jerman barat laut dan Sudut dari apa yang sekarang Schleswig-Holstein . [6] Sebelum pemukiman-pemukiman beberapa Frisia menginvasi Inggris timur dalam 250S. They first invaded Britain in the mid-5th century, continuing for several decades. Mereka pertama kali menginvasi Inggris pada pertengahan abad ke-5, terus selama beberapa dekade. The Jutes appear to have been the principal group of settlers in Kent , the Isle of Wight and parts of coastal Hampshire , while the Saxons predominated in all other areas south of the Thames and in Essex and Middlesex , and the Angles in Norfolk , Suffolk , the Midlands and the north. [ citation needed ] Para Jutes tampaknya telah kelompok utama pemukim di Kent , yang Isle of Wight dan bagian dari pesisir Hampshire , sedangkan Saxon didominasi di semua daerah lain di sebelah selatan Thames dan di Essex dan Middlesex , dan Angles di Norfolk , Suffolk , yang Midlands dan utara. [ rujukan? ]
The population of Britain dramatically decreased after the Roman period. Populasi Inggris secara dramatis menurun setelah Romawi periode. The reduction seems to have been caused mainly by plague and smallpox . Penurunan tersebut tampaknya telah disebabkan terutama oleh wabah dan cacar . It is known that the plague of Justinian entered the Mediterranean world in the 6th century and first arrived in the British Isles in 544 or 545, when it reached Ireland. [ 7 ] The Annales Cambriae mention the death of Maelgwn Wledig, king of Gwynedd from that plague in 547. Telah diketahui bahwa wabah Justinian memasuki dunia Mediterania pada abad ke-6 dan pertama kali tiba di Kepulauan Inggris di 544 545, atau ketika mencapai Irlandia. [7] The Cambriae Annales menyebutkan kematian Maelgwn Wledig, raja Gwynedd dari bahwa wabah di 547.
[ edit ] Anglo-Saxon conquests and the founding of England [ sunting ] Anglo-Saxon penaklukan dan pendirian Inggris
Main article: History of Anglo-Saxon England Artikel utama: Sejarah Anglo-Saxon Inggris
In approximately 495, at the Battle of Mount Badon , Britons inflicted a severe defeat on an invading Anglo-Saxon army which halted the westward Anglo-Saxon advance for some decades. [ citation needed ] Archaeological evidence collected from pagan Anglo-Saxon cemeteries suggests that some of their settlements were abandoned and the frontier between the invaders and the native inhabitants pushed back some time around 500. Dalam waktu sekitar 495, pada Pertempuran Gunung Badon , Inggris diakibatkan kekalahan parah pada pasukan Anglo-Saxon menyerang yang terhenti Anglo-Saxon muka ke arah barat untuk beberapa dekade. [ rujukan? ] Bukti arkeologis yang dikumpulkan dari Anglo-Saxon pagan pemakaman menunjukkan bahwa beberapa pemukiman mereka ditinggalkan dan perbatasan antara penjajah dan penduduk asli mendorong kembali beberapa waktu sekitar 500. 
Anglo-Saxon expansion resumed in the 6th century, although the chronology of its progress is unclear. Anglo-Saxon ekspansi dilanjutkan pada abad ke-6, meskipun kronologi kemajuan yang tidak jelas. One of the few individual events which emerges with any clarity before the 7th century is the Battle of Deorham , in 577, a West Saxon victory which led to the capture of Cirencester , Gloucester and Bath , bringing the Anglo-Saxon advance to the Bristol Channel and dividing the Britons in the West Country from those in Wales. Salah satu peristiwa beberapa individu yang muncul dengan kejelasan sebelum abad ke-7 adalah Pertempuran Deorham , di 577, sebuah Saxon Barat kemenangan yang menyebabkan penangkapan Cirencester , Gloucester dan Bath , membawa muka-Saxon Anglo ke Bristol Channel dan membagi Inggris di West Country dari orang-orang di Wales. The Northumbrian victory at the Battle of Chester around 616 may have had a similar effect in dividing Wales from the Britons of Cumbria . The Northumbria kemenangan di Pertempuran Chester sekitar 616 mungkin memiliki efek yang sama dalam membagi Wales dari warga Inggris dari Cumbria .
Gradual Saxon expansion through the West Country continued through the 7th, 8th, and 9th centuries. Bertahap perluasan Saxon melalui West Country terus selama berabad-abad 7, 8, dan 9. Meanwhile, by the mid-7th century the Angles had pushed the Britons back to the approximate borders of modern Wales in the west, the Tamar in the South west and expanded northward as far as the River Forth . Sementara itu, pada pertengahan abad ke-7 di Sudut telah mendorong warga Inggris kembali ke perbatasan perkiraan Wales modern di barat, Tamar di sebelah barat Selatan dan diperluas ke utara sejauh Sungai Forth .
[ edit ] Heptarchy and Christianisation [ sunting ] Heptarchy dan Christianisation
Main articles: Northumbria , Mercia , Offa of Mercia , Heptarchy , and Anglo-Saxon Christianity Artikel utama: Northumbria , Mercia , Offa dari Mercia , Heptarchy , dan Anglo-Saxon Kristen
Christianisation of Anglo-Saxon England began around 600 AD, influenced by Celtic Christianity from the northwest and by the Roman Catholic Church from the southeast. Augustine , the first Archbishop of Canterbury , took office in 597. Christianisation Anglo-Saxon Inggris dimulai sekitar 600 AD, dipengaruhi oleh Celtic Kristen dari barat laut dan oleh Gereja Katolik Roma dari tenggara. Agustinus , yang pertama Uskup Agung Canterbury , mengambil kantor di 597. In 601, he baptised the first Christian Anglo-Saxon king, Aethelbert of Kent . Pada 601, ia dibaptis Anglo-Saxon Kristen raja pertama, Aethelbert of Kent . The last pagan Anglo-Saxon king, Penda of Mercia , died in 655. The pagan terakhir Anglo-Saxon raja, Penda dari Mercia , meninggal pada 655. The last pagan Jutish king, Arwald of the Isle of Wight was killed in 686. The pagan terakhir Jutish raja, Arwald dari Isle of Wight terbunuh di 686. The Anglo-Saxon mission on the continent took off in the 8th century, leading to the Christianisation of practically all of the Frankish Empire by 800. The Anglo-Saxon misi di benua itu lepas landas pada abad ke-8, yang mengarah ke Christianisation dari hampir seluruh Kekaisaran Frank oleh 800. Throughout the 7th and 8th century power fluctuated between the larger kingdoms. Bede records Aethelbert of Kent as being dominant at the close of the 6th century, but power seems to have shifted northwards to the kingdom of Northumbria, which was formed from the amalgamation of Bernicia and Deira. Edwin of Northumbria probably held dominance over much of Britain, though Bede's Northumbrian bias should be kept in mind. Sepanjang abad ke-8 kekuasaan dan 7 berfluktuasi antara kerajaan-kerajaan yang lebih besar. Bede catatan Aethelbert of Kent sebagai dominan pada akhir abad ke-6, tetapi kekuasaan tampaknya telah bergeser ke utara ke kerajaan Northumbria, yang terbentuk dari penggabungan Bernicia dan Deira. Edwin dari Northumbria mungkin diadakan dominasi atas sebagian besar Inggris, meskipun Northumbria bias's Bede harus diingat. Succession crises meant Northumbrian hegemony was not constant, and Mercia remained a very powerful kingdom, especially under Penda. krisis Suksesi berarti hegemoni Northumbria tidak konstan, dan Mercia tetap menjadi kerajaan yang sangat kuat, terutama di bawah Penda. Two defeats essentially ended Northumbrian dominance: the Battle of the Trent in 679 against Mercia, and Nechtanesmere in 685 against the Picts . Dua kekalahan dasarnya berakhir dominasi Northumbria: Pertempuran Trent dalam 679 melawan Mercia, dan Nechtanesmere di 685 terhadap Picts .
The so-called "Mercian Supremacy" dominated the 8th century, though it was not constant. Apa yang disebut "Mercian Supremasi" mendominasi abad ke-8, meskipun itu tidak konstan. Aethelbald and Offa , the two most powerful kings, achieved high status; indeed, Offa was considered the overlord of south Britain by Charlemagne . Aethelbald dan Offa , dua raja yang paling kuat, mencapai status yang tinggi, memang, Offa dianggap sebagai penguasa Inggris selatan dengan Charlemagne . That Offa could summon the resources to build Offa's Dyke is testament to his power. Itu bisa memanggil Offa sumber daya untuk membangun Offa's Dyke merupakan bukti kekuasaannya. However, a rising Wessex, and challenges from smaller kingdoms, kept Mercian power in check, and by the early 9th century the "Mercian Supremacy" was over. Namun, naik Wessex, dan tantangan dari kerajaan yang lebih kecil, terus daya Mercian di cek, dan pada abad ke-9 awal "Mercian Supremasi" sudah berakhir.
This period has been described as the Heptarchy , though this term has now fallen out of academic use. Periode ini telah digambarkan sebagai Heptarchy , meskipun istilah ini kini telah jatuh dari penggunaan akademis. The word arose on the basis that the seven kingdoms of Northumbria , Mercia , Kent , East Anglia , Essex , Sussex and Wessex were the main polities of south Britain. Kata muncul atas dasar bahwa tujuh kerajaan Northumbria , Mercia , Kent , East Anglia , Essex , Sussex dan Wessex adalah polities utama Inggris selatan. More recent scholarship [ citation needed ] has shown that other kingdoms were also politically important across this period: Hwicce , Magonsaete , Lindsey and Middle Anglia. Lebih baru beasiswa [ rujukan? ] telah menunjukkan bahwa kerajaan lainnya juga secara politik penting di periode ini: Hwicce , Magonsaete , Lindsey dan Tengah Anglia.
[ edit ] Viking challenge and the rise of Wessex [ sunting ] tantangan Viking dan kebangkitan Wessex
Main articles: Danelaw , Viking Age , and Alfred the Great Artikel utama: Danelaw , Viking Age , dan Alfred yang Agung
The conquest of Northumbria, north-western Mercia and East Anglia by the Danes led to widespread Danish settlement in these areas. Penaklukan Northumbria, Mercia utara-barat dan East Anglia oleh Denmark menyebabkan penyelesaian Denmark tersebar luas di daerah-daerah. In the early 10th century the Norwegian rulers of Dublin took over the Danish kingdom of York . Pada awal abad ke-10 penguasa Norwegia Dublin mengambil alih kerajaan Denmark York . Danish and Norwegian settlement made enough of an impact to leave significant traces in the English language ; many fundamental words in modern English are derived from Old Norse , though of the 100 most used words in English the vast majority are Old English in origin. dan Norwegia Denmark penyelesaian dibuat cukup dampak untuk meninggalkan jejak yang signifikan dalam bahasa Inggris , kata dasar dalam bahasa Inggris modern banyak berasal dari Old Norse , meskipun dari 100 yang digunakan dalam bahasa Inggris kata yang paling mayoritas adalah Inggris Kuno berasal. Similarly, many place-names in areas of Danish and Norwegian settlement have Scandinavian roots. Demikian pula, banyak tempat-nama di daerah pemukiman Denmark dan Norwegia memiliki akar Skandinavia.
By the end of Alfred's reign in 899 he was the only remaining English king, having reduced Mercia to a dependency of Wessex, governed by his son-in-law Ealdorman Aethelred . Cornwall (Kernow) was subject to West Saxon dominance, and the Welsh kingdoms recognised Alfred as their overlord. Pada akhir itu pemerintahan Alfred di 899 dia adalah bahasa Inggris raja hanya tersisa, setelah dikurangi Mercia ke ketergantungan Wessex, diatur oleh-anaknya-hukum di Ealdorman Aethelred . Cornwall (Kernow) tunduk pada dominasi Saxon Barat, dan Welsh kerajaan diakui Alfred sebagai tuan mereka.
[ edit ] English unification [ sunting ] unifikasi Inggris
Main articles: Athelstan and Edgar of England Artikel utama: Athelstan dan Edgar Inggris
Æthelstan continued the expansion of his father and aunt and was the first king to achieve direct rulership of what we would now consider England. Æthelstan melanjutkan ekspansi ayahnya dan bibinya dan merupakan raja pertama untuk mencapai pemerintahan langsung dari apa yang sekarang kita akan mempertimbangkan Inggris. The titles attributed to him in charters and on coins suggest a still more widespread dominance. Judul dikaitkan dengannya dalam piagam dan koin menyarankan lebih luas masih dominasi. His expansion aroused ill-feeling among the other kingdoms of Britain, and he defeated a combined Scottish-Viking army at the Battle of Brunanburh . ekspansi Nya terangsang sakit-perasaan di antara kerajaan-kerajaan lain di Inggris, dan ia mengalahkan tentara Skotlandia-Viking digabungkan pada Pertempuran Brunanburh . However, the unification of England was not a certainty. Namun, penyatuan Inggris tidak kepastian. Under Æthelstan's successors Edmund and Eadred the English kings repeatedly lost and regained control of Northumbria. Dalam Æthelstan's pengganti Edmund dan Eadred raja-raja Inggris berulang kali hilang dan kembali menguasai Northumbria. Nevertheless, Edgar , who ruled the same expanse as Athelstan, consolidated the kingdom, which remained united thereafter. Namun demikian, Edgar , yang memerintah hamparan yang sama seperti Athelstan, konsolidasi kerajaan, yang tetap bersatu setelahnya.
[ edit ] England under the Danes and the Norman conquest [ sunting ] Inggris di bawah Denmark dan penaklukan Norman
Main articles: Ethelred the Unready , Canute the Great , EirÃkr Hákonarson , and Norman conquest of England Artikel utama: Ethelred yang tidak siap , Canute Agung , EirÃkr Hákonarson , dan penaklukan Norman dari Inggris
Canute was succeeded by his sons, but in 1042 the native dynasty was restored with the accession of Edward the Confessor . Canute digantikan oleh anak-anaknya, tapi di 1042 dinasti asli dipulihkan dengan aksesi Edward Confessor . Edward's failure to produce an heir caused a furious conflict over the succession on his death in 1066. Edward kegagalan untuk menghasilkan ahli waris menyebabkan konflik marah atas suksesi pada kematiannya tahun 1066. His struggles for power against Godwin, Earl of Wessex , the claims of Canute's Scandinavian successors, and the ambitions of the Normans whom Edward introduced to English politics to bolster his own position caused each to vie for control Edward's reign. Perjuangan untuk kekuasaan terhadap Godwin, Earl of Wessex , klaim dari Skandinavia penerus's Canute, dan ambisi dari Normandia yang diperkenalkan Edward politik Inggris untuk memperkuat posisinya sendiri disebabkan masing-masing untuk bersaing Edward pemerintahan kontrol.
Harold Godwinson became king, in all likelihood appointed by Edward the Confessor on his deathbed and endorsed by the Witan . William of Normandy , Harald III of Norway (aided by Harold Godwin's estranged brother Tostig ) and Sweyn II of Denmark all asserted claims to the throne. Harold Godwinson menjadi raja, dalam semua kemungkinan ditunjuk oleh Edward Confessor di akhir hidupnya dan disahkan oleh Witan . William dari Normandia , Harald III dari Norwegia (dibantu oleh Godwin's terasing saudara Harold Tostig ) dan Svend II dari Denmark semua menegaskan klaim untuk takhta . By far the strongest hereditary claim was that of Edgar the Atheling , but his youth and apparent lack of powerful supporters caused him to be passed over, and he did not play a major part in the struggles of 1066, though he was made king for a short time by the Witan after the death of Harold Godwinson. Sejauh ini klaim turun temurun terkuat adalah bahwa dari Edgar yang Atheling , namun masa mudanya dan kurangnya jelas pendukung kuat menyebabkan dia harus melewati, dan ia tidak memainkan peranan utama dalam perjuangan dari 1066, meskipun ia menjadi raja untuk singkat waktu oleh Witan setelah kematian Harold Godwinson.
In September 1066, Harald III of Norway landed in Northern England with a force of around 15,000 men and 300 longships (50 men in each boat). Pada bulan September 1066, Harald III dari Norwegia mendarat di Utara Inggris dengan kekuatan sekitar 15.000 laki-laki dan 300 longships (50 laki-laki dalam perahu masing-masing). With him was Earl Tostig , who had promised him support. Harold Godwinson defeated and killed Harald III of Norway and Tostig and the Norwegian force at the Battle of Stamford Bridge . Dengan dia adalah Earl Tostig , yang telah berjanji dia dukungan. Harold Godwinson dikalahkan dan dibunuh Harald III dari Norwegia dan Tostig dan gaya Norwegia pada Pertempuran Stamford Bridge .
On September 28, 1066, William of Normandy invaded England with a force of Normans, in a campaign known as the Norman Conquest . Pada tanggal 28 September 1066, William dari Normandia menyerbu Inggris dengan gaya Normandia, dalam kampanye yang dikenal sebagai Penaklukan Norman . On October 14, after having marched his exhausted army all the way from Yorkshire , Harold fought the Normans at the Battle of Hastings , where England's army was defeated and Harold was killed. Pada tanggal 14 Oktober, setelah pasukan berbaris habis nya sepanjang jalan dari Yorkshire , Harold melawan Normandia pada Pertempuran Hastings , mana tentara Inggris Harold dikalahkan dan dibunuh. Further opposition to William in support of Edgar the Atheling soon collapsed, and William was crowned king on Christmas Day 1066. oposisi lebih lanjut William mendukung Edgar yang Atheling segera runtuh, dan William dimahkotai raja pada Hari Natal 1066. For the next five years he faced a series of English rebellions in various parts of the country and a half-hearted Danish invasion, but he was able to subdue all resistance and establish an enduring regime. Selama lima tahun berikutnya ia menghadapi serangkaian pemberontakan bahasa Inggris di berbagai bagian negara dan invasi Denmark setengah hati, tapi dia mampu menundukkan semua perlawanan dan membentuk sebuah rezim bertahan.
[ edit ] Norman England [ sunting ] Norman Inggris
Further information: Anglo-Norman Informasi lebih lanjut: Anglo-Norman
The English Middle Ages were characterised by civil war , international war, occasional insurrection, and widespread political intrigue amongst the aristocratic and monarchic elite. Orang Inggris Abad Pertengahan yang ditandai dengan perang saudara , perang internasional, pemberontakan sesekali, dan intrik politik yang meluas di kalangan elit dan kerajaan aristokrat. England was more than self-sufficient in cereals, dairy products, beef and mutton. Inggris lebih dari swasembada sereal, produk susu, daging sapi dan kambing. The nation's international economy was based on the wool trade , in which the produce of the sheepwalks of northern England was exported to the textile cities of Flanders , where it was worked into cloth. Teman internasional ekonomi bangsa ini didasarkan pada perdagangan wol , di mana produksi yang sheepwalks Inggris utara diekspor ke kota-kota tekstil Flanders , di mana ia bekerja menjadi kain. Medieval foreign policy was as much shaped by relations with the Flemish textile industry as it was by dynastic adventures in western France. Abad Pertengahan kebijakan luar negeri sebanyak dibentuk oleh hubungan dengan industri tekstil Flemish seperti yang oleh dinasti petualangan di Perancis barat. An English textile industry was established in the 15th century, providing the basis for rapid English capital accumulation. Sebuah industri tekstil Inggris didirikan di abad ke-15, menyediakan dasar untuk akumulasi modal cepat bahasa Inggris.
Henry I , the fourth son of William I the Conqueror , succeeded his elder brother William II as King of England in 1100. Henry I , putra keempat William I sang Penakluk , berhasil kakak nya William II sebagai Raja Inggris pada tahun 1100. Henry was also known as "Henry Beauclerc" (because of his education—as his older brother William was the heir apparent and thus given the practical training to be king, Henry received the alternate, formal education), worked hard to reform and stabilise the country and smooth the differences between the Anglo-Saxon and Anglo-Norman societies. Henry juga dikenal sebagai "Henry Beauclerc" (karena pendidikannya-sebagai kakaknya William adalah pewaris dan dengan demikian diberi pelatihan praktis untuk menjadi raja, Henry menerima formal, pendidikan alternatif), bekerja keras untuk reformasi dan menstabilkan negara dan halus perbedaan antara Anglo-Saxon dan Anglo-Norman masyarakat. The loss of his son, William Adelin , in the wreck of the White Ship in November 1120, undermined his reforms. Hilangnya anaknya, William Adelin , di bangkai kapal dari Kapal Putih di bulan November 1120, melemahkan reformasi. This problem regarding succession cast a long shadow over English history. Masalah mengenai suksesi melemparkan bayangan panjang atas sejarah Inggris.
During the confused and contested reign of Stephen , there was a major swing in the balance of power towards the feudal barons , as civil war and lawlessness broke out. Selama dan diperebutkan pemerintahan bingung Stephen , ada ayunan utama dalam keseimbangan kekuasaan terhadap feodal baron , sebagai perang saudara dan tiada hukum pecah. In trying to appease Scottish and Welsh raiders, he handed over large tracts of land. Dalam mencoba untuk menentramkan perampok Skotlandia dan Welsh, ia menyerahkan tanah luas tanah. His conflicts with his cousin The Empress Matilda (also known as Empress Maud), led to a civil war from 1139-1153 known as the Anarchy . Nya konflik dengan sepupunya The Matilda Ratu (juga dikenal sebagai Ratu Maud), menyebabkan perang saudara 1139-1153 yang dikenal sebagai yang Anarchy . Matilda's father, Henry I , had required the leading barons, ecclesiastics and officials in Normandy and England, to take an oath to accept Matilda as his heir. ayah Matilda, Henry I , telah mengharuskan baron terkemuka, ecclesiastics dan pejabat di Normandia dan Inggris, untuk mengambil sumpah untuk menerima Matilda sebagai ahli warisnya. England was far less than enthusiastic to accept an outsider, and a woman, as their ruler. Inggris jauh kurang dari antusias untuk menerima orang luar, dan seorang wanita, sebagai penguasa mereka.
There is some evidence suggesting Henry was unsure of his own hopes and the oath to make Matilda his heir. Ada beberapa bukti menunjukkan Henry tidak yakin harapan sendiri dan sumpah untuk membuat Matilda ahli warisnya. In likelihood, Henry probably hoped Matilda would have a son and step aside as Queen Mother, making her son the next heir. Kemungkinan besar, Henry mungkin berharap Matilda akan memiliki seorang putra dan menyingkir sebagai Ratu Ibu, membuat anaknya pewaris berikutnya. Upon Henry's death, the Norman and English barons ignored Matilda's claim to the throne, and thus through a series of decisions, Stephen, Henry's favourite nephew, was welcomed by many in England and Normandy as their new ruler. Setelah kematian Henry, para baron Norman dan Inggris mengabaikan klaim Matilda untuk takhta, dan dengan demikian melalui serangkaian keputusan, Stephen, keponakan favorit Henry, disambut oleh banyak orang di Inggris dan Normandia sebagai penguasa baru mereka.
On 22 December 1135, Stephen was anointed king with the implicit support of the church and nation. Pada 22 Desember 1135, Stephen telah diangkat menjadi raja dengan dukungan implisit dari gereja dan bangsa. Matilda and her own son stood for direct descent by heredity from Henry I, and she bided her time in France. Matilda dan anaknya sendiri berdiri untuk keturunan langsung oleh keturunan dari Henry I, dan ia Pacfa waktunya di Perancis. In the autumn of 1139, she invaded England with her illegitimate half-brother Robert of Gloucester . Pada musim gugur 1139, ia menyerbu Inggris dengan setengah kakaknya-sah Robert of Gloucester . Her husband, Geoffroy V of Anjou , conquered Normandy but did not cross the channel to help his wife, satisfied with Normandy and Anjou. Suaminya, Geoffroy V dari Anjou , menaklukkan Normandia tapi tidak lintas saluran untuk membantu istrinya, puas dengan Normandy dan Anjou. During this breakdown of central authority, the nobles ran amuck building adulterine castles (ie castles erected without government permission). Selama ini rincian kewenangan pusat, para bangsawan berlari mengamuk bangunan benteng adulterine (yaitu istana didirikan tanpa izin pemerintah).
Stephen was captured, and his government fell. Stephen ditangkap, dan pemerintahannya jatuh. Matilda was proclaimed queen but was soon at odds with her subjects and was expelled from London. Matilda adalah ratu diproklamasikan tapi segera bertentangan dengan subyek dan diusir dari London. The period of insurrection and civil war that followed continued until 1148, when Matilda returned to France. Masa pemberontakan dan perang saudara yang diikuti berlanjut hingga 1148, ketika Matilda kembali ke Perancis. Stephen effectively reigned unopposed until his death in 1154, although his hold on the throne was still uneasy. Stephen efektif memerintah terlindung sampai kematiannya pada 1154, meskipun terus di atas takhta masih gelisah. As soon as he regained power, he began the process of demolishing the adulterine castles, which were hated by the peasants due to their being employed as forced labor to build and maintain them. Begitu ia mendapatkan kembali kekuatannya, ia mulai proses menghancurkan benteng-benteng adulterine, yang dibenci oleh para petani karena sedang mereka dipekerjakan sebagai pekerja paksa untuk membangun dan memelihara mereka. Stephen kept a few castles standing however, which put him at odds with his heir. Stephen menyimpan beberapa istana berdiri Namun, yang menempatkan dia bertentangan dengan ahli warisnya.
[ edit ] England under the Plantagenets [ sunting ] Inggris di bawah Plantagenets
Geoffroy's son, Henry, resumed the invasion; he was already Count of Anjou, Duke of Normandy and Duke of Aquitaine when he landed in England. Geoffroy's putra, Henry, melanjutkan invasi, dia sudah Count dari Anjou, Duke of Normandy dan Duke dari Aquitaine ketika ia mendarat di Inggris. When Stephen's son and heir apparent Eustace died in 1153, the king reached an accommodation with Henry of Anjou (who became Henry II ) to succeed Stephen and in which peace between them was guaranteed. Ketika putra Stephen dan pewaris Eustace meninggal tahun 1153, raja mencapai akomodasi dengan Henry Anjou (yang menjadi Henry II ) untuk berhasil Stephen dan di mana perdamaian antara mereka adalah dijamin. England was part of a greater union, retrospectively named the Angevin Empire . Inggris adalah bagian dari sebuah serikat yang lebih besar, retrospektif bernama Kekaisaran Angevin . Henry destroyed the remaining adulterine castles and expanded his power through various means and to different levels into Ireland, Scotland, Wales, Flanders, Nantes, Brittany, Quercy, Toulouse, Bourges and Auvergne. Henry menghancurkan benteng adulterine tersisa dan memperluas kekuasaannya melalui berbagai cara dan tingkatan yang berbeda ke Irlandia, Skotlandia, Wales, Flanders, Nantes, Brittany, Quercy, Toulouse, Bourges dan Auvergne.The reign of Henry II represents a reversion in power back from the barony to the monarchical state in England; it was also to see a similar redistribution of legislative power from the Church, again to the monarchical state. Pemerintahan Henry II merupakan pembalikan daya kembali dari baron ke negara monarki di Inggris, melainkan juga untuk melihat redistribusi serupa kekuasaan legislatif dari Gereja, kembali ke negara monarkis. This period also presaged a properly constituted legislation and a radical shift away from feudalism . Periode ini juga presaged dengan benar merupakan undang-undang dan pergeseran radikal dari feodalisme . In his reign new Anglo-Angevin and Anglo-Aquitanian aristocracies developed, though not to the same point as the Anglo-Norman once did, and the Norman nobles interacted with their French peers. Dalam pemerintahannya baru Anglo-Angevin dan Anglo-Aquitanian aristokrasi dikembangkan, meskipun tidak pada titik yang sama dengan Anglo-Norman dulu, dan bangsawan Norman berinteraksi dengan rekan-rekan Prancis mereka.
Henry's successor, Richard I "the Lion Heart" (also known as "The absent king"), was preoccupied with foreign wars, taking part in the Third Crusade and defending his French territories against Philip II of France. Henry penerus, Richard I "Hati Singa" (juga dikenal sebagai "Raja tidak ada"), sibuk dengan perang asing, mengambil bagian dalam Perang Salib Ketiga dan mempertahankan wilayah Perancis melawan Philip II dari Perancis.
The Kingdom of England was a sovereign state until the reign of Richard I who made it a nominal vassal of the Holy Roman Empire in 1194 as part of a ransom when he was captured after a crusade. Kerajaan Inggris adalah negara yang berdaulat sampai masa pemerintahan Richard I yang membuatnya pengikut nominal Kekaisaran Romawi Suci pada 1194 sebagai bagian dari uang tebusan ketika ia ditangkap setelah perang salib.
Richard's younger brother John , who succeeded him, was not so fortunate; he suffered the loss of Normandy and numerous other French territories following the disastrous Battle of Bouvines . adik Richard John , yang menggantikan dia, tidak begitu beruntung, ia menderita kehilangan Normandia dan berbagai wilayah Perancis lainnya menyusul bencana Pertempuran Bouvines .
Facing internal disorder, in 1212 John made the Kingdom of England a tribute-paying vassal of the Holy See , which it remained until the 14th century when the Kingdom rejected the overlordship of the Holy See and re-established its sovereignty. Menghadapi gangguan internal, di 1212 John membuat Kerajaan Inggris yang-membayar upeti dari pengikut Tahta Suci , yang tetap sampai abad ke-14 ketika Kerajaan menolak penguasa atasan dari Tahta Suci dan didirikan kembali kedaulatannya. From 1212 onwards, John had a constant policy of maintaining close relations with the Pope, which partially explains how he persuaded the Pope to reject the legitimacy of the Magna Carta . Dari 1212 dan seterusnya, John memiliki kebijakan tetap mempertahankan hubungan erat dengan Paus, yang sebagian menjelaskan bagaimana ia membujuk Paus untuk menolak legitimasi Magna Carta .
The European wars culminated in defeat at the Battle of Bouvines (1214), which forced the king to accept an unfavourable peace with France after having failed to get help from King Mohammed el-Nasir of Morocco. [ 8 ] Perang Eropa memuncak dalam kekalahan di Pertempuran Bouvines (1214), yang memaksa raja untuk menerima perdamaian yang tidak menguntungkan dengan Perancis setelah gagal untuk mendapatkan bantuan dari Mohammed el-Nasir Raja Maroko. [8]
[ edit ] Magna Carta [ sunting ] Magna Carta
Main article: Magna Carta Artikel utama: Magna Carta
John's son, Henry III , was only 9 years old when he became king (1216–1272). putra John, Henry III , hanya 9 tahun ketika ia menjadi raja (1216-1272). He spent much of his reign fighting the barons over the Magna Carta [ citation needed ] and the royal rights, and was eventually forced to call the first " parliament " in 1264. Dia menghabiskan banyak pemerintahannya pertempuran baron atas Magna Carta [ rujukan? ] dan hak-hak kerajaan, dan akhirnya dipaksa untuk memanggil "pertama parlemen "pada tahun 1264. He was also unsuccessful on the Continent, where he endeavoured to re-establish English control over Normandy , Anjou , and Aquitaine . Dia juga berhasil di Benua, di mana ia berusaha untuk menegakkan kembali kendali Inggris selama Normandia , Anjou , dan Aquitaine .
His reign was punctuated by numerous rebellions and civil wars, often provoked by incompetence and mismanagement in government and Henry's perceived over-reliance on French courtiers (thus restricting the influence of the English nobility). Pemerintahannya diwarnai oleh berbagai pemberontakan dan perang saudara, sering dipicu oleh ketidakmampuan dan salah urus dalam pemerintahan dan Henry dirasakan selama-ketergantungan pada istana Perancis (dengan demikian membatasi pengaruh bangsawan Inggris). One of these rebellions—led by a disaffected courtier, Simon de Montfort —was notable for its assembly of one of the earliest precursors to Parliament . Salah satu pemberontakan yang dipimpin oleh seorang punggawa puas, Simon de Montfort -adalah penting untuk perakitan salah satu perintis awal untuk Parlemen . In addition to fighting the Second Barons' War , Henry III made war against Saint Louis and was defeated during the Saintonge War , yet Louis IX did not capitalise on his victory, respecting his opponent's rights. Selain pertempuran Barons Kedua 'Perang , Henry III berperang melawan Saint Louis dan dikalahkan selama Perang Saintonge , namun Louis IX tidak memanfaatkan kemenangannya, menghormati's lawan haknya.
[ edit ] 1300s [ sunting ] 1300-an
The reign of Edward I (reigned 1272–1307) was rather more successful. Masa pemerintahan Edward I (memerintah 1272-1307) agak lebih berhasil. Edward enacted numerous laws strengthening the powers of his government, and he summoned the first officially sanctioned Parliaments of England (such as his Model Parliament ). Edward berlaku banyak hukum memperkuat kekuasaan pemerintah, dan ia memanggil sanksi pertama resmi Parlemen Inggris (seperti nya Model Parlemen ). He conquered Wales and attempted to use a succession dispute to gain control of the Kingdom of Scotland , though this developed into a costly and drawn-out military campaign. Ia menaklukkan Wales dan mencoba menggunakan sengketa suksesi untuk mendapatkan kontrol dari Kerajaan Skotlandia , meskipun ini berkembang menjadi mahal dan berlarut-larut kampanye militer.His son, Edward II , proved a disaster. Putranya, Edward II , terbukti bencana. A weak man who preferred to engage in activities like thatching and ditch-digging [ citation needed ] rather than jousting, hunting, or the usual entertainments of kings, he spent most of his reign trying in vain to control the nobility, who in return showed continual hostility to him. Seorang pria lemah yang lebih suka terlibat dalam kegiatan seperti daun atap dan selokan-menggali [ rujukan? ], bukan jousting, berburu, atau hiburan biasa raja, ia menghabiskan sebagian besar pemerintahannya berusaha dengan sia-sia untuk mengontrol bangsawan, yang dalam kembali menunjukkan permusuhan terus-menerus padanya. Meanwhile, the Scottish leader Robert Bruce began retaking all the territory conquered by Edward I. In 1314, the English army was disastrously defeated by the Scots at the Battle of Bannockburn . Sementara itu, pemimpin Skotlandia Robert Bruce mulai merebut kembali semua wilayah ditaklukkan oleh Edward I. Pada 1314, tentara Inggris malapetaka dikalahkan oleh Skotlandia pada Pertempuran Bannockburn . Edward also showered favors on his companion Piers Gaveston , a knight of humble birth. Edward juga mandi nikmat pada kawannya Piers Gaveston , seorang ksatria lahir rendah hati. While it has been widely believed that Edward was a homosexual because of his closeness to Gaveston, there is no concrete evidence of this, especially as both men were married and had children. Meskipun telah banyak percaya bahwa Edward adalah homoseksual karena kedekatannya dengan Gaveston, tidak ada bukti nyata dari ini, terutama karena kedua pria itu menikah dan punya anak. The king's enemies, including his cousin Thomas of Lancaster , captured and murdered Gaveston in 1312. Raja musuh, termasuk sepupunya Thomas dari Lancaster , ditangkap dan dibunuh Gaveston di 1312.
Edward's downfall came in 1326 when his queen Isabella travelled to her native France and then, along with her lover Roger Mortimer , invaded England . Teman-jatuhnya Edward datang dalam 1326 ketika ia Isabella ratu pergi ke nya Perancis asli dan kemudian, bersama dengan kekasihnya Roger Mortimer , menyerbu Inggris . Despite their tiny force, they quickly rallied support for their cause. Meskipun kekuatan yang kecil, mereka cepat bersatu dukungan untuk tujuan mereka. The king fled London, and his companion since Piers Gaveston's death, Hugh Despenser , was publicly tried and executed. Raja melarikan diri London, dan rekannya sejak Gaveston kematian Piers, Hugh Despenser , adalah umum diadili dan dieksekusi. Edward was eventually captured and charged with breaking his coronation oath. Edward akhirnya ditangkap dan didakwa melanggar sumpah penobatannya. He was deposed and remained imprisoned in Gloucestershire until he was murdered some time in the autumn of 1327, presumably by agents of Isabella and Mortimer. Dia digulingkan dan tetap dipenjara di Gloucestershire sampai dia dibunuh beberapa waktu pada musim gugur tahun 1327, mungkin oleh agen-agen Isabella dan Mortimer.
The Great Famine of 1315–1317 was the first crisis that would strike Europe in the 14th century. The Kelaparan Besar 1315-1317 adalah krisis pertama yang akan menyerang Eropa pada abad ke-14. Millions in northern Europe would die over an extended number of years, marking a clear end to the earlier period of growth and prosperity during the 11th and 12th centuries. [ 9 ] The famine of 1315–1316 may have killed more than 10% of England's population, or at least 500,000 people. [ 10 ] Jutaan di Eropa utara akan mati melalui telepon diperpanjang tahun, menandai akhir yang jelas untuk periode awal pertumbuhan dan kemakmuran selama abad 11 dan 12. [9] The kelaparan 1315-1316 mungkin telah menewaskan lebih dari 10% dari Inggris populasi, atau setidaknya 500.000 orang. [10]
Edward III reigned 1327–1377, restored royal authority and went on to transform the Kingdom of England into the most efficient military power in Europe. Edward III memerintah 1327-1377, dipulihkan otoritas kerajaan dan pergi untuk mengubah Kerajaan Inggris ke kekuatan militer yang paling efisien di Eropa. His reign saw vital developments in legislature and government—in particular the evolution of the English parliament—as well as the ravages of the Black Death. Pemerintahannya melihat perkembangan vital dalam legislatif dan pemerintah-khususnya evolusi dari Inggris parlemen-juga kerusakan akibat Black Death. After defeating, but not subjugating, the Kingdom of Scotland , he declared himself rightful heir to the French throne in 1338, starting what would be known as the Hundred Years' War . Setelah mengalahkan, tetapi tidak menundukkan, maka Kerajaan Skotlandia , ia menyatakan dirinya pewaris sah tahta Prancis di 1338, mulai apa yang akan dikenal sebagai Perang Seratus Tahun .
[ edit ] Black Death [ sunting ] Black Death
Main article: Black Death in England Artikel utama: Black Death di Inggris
The Black Death , an epidemic of bubonic plague that spread over the whole of Europe, arrived in England in 1348 and killed as much as a third to half the population. The Black Death , wabah penyakit pes yang tersebar di seluruh Eropa, tiba di Inggris pada 1348 dan menewaskan sebanyak setengah untuk penduduk ketiga. International excursions around that time were invariably against domestic neighbours: the Welsh, Irish, Cornish , and the Hundred Years' War against the French and their Scottish allies. perjalanan internasional sekitar waktu yang selalu melawan tetangga domestik: Welsh, Irlandia, Cornish , dan Seratus Tahun Perang melawan Prancis dan mereka Skotlandia sekutu. Notable English victories in the Hundred Years' War included Crécy and Agincourt . In addition to this, the final defeat of the uprising led by the Welsh prince, Owain Glyndŵr , in 1412 by Prince Henry (who later became Henry V ) represents the last major armed attempt by the Welsh to throw off English rule.
Edward III gave land to powerful noble families, including many people of royal lineage. Because land was equivalent to power, these powerful men could try to claim the crown. The autocratic and arrogant methods of Richard II only served to alienate the nobility more, and his forceful dispossession in 1399 by Henry IV increased the turmoil.
[ edit ] 1400s
The reign of Henry V , who succeeded to the throne in 1413, was mostly notable for the great victory over the French at Agincourt . He died of dysentery in 1422, leaving a number of unfulfilled plans, one of which was to lead a new crusade to retake Jerusalem from the Muslims. The turmoil was at its peak in the reign of Henry VI , which began in 1422, because of his personal weaknesses and mental instability.When the Hundred Years' War was lost in August 1453, Henry fell into a period of mental breakdown that lasted until Christmas 1454. With his inability to control the feuding nobles, civil war began in 1455. The conflicts are known as the Wars of the Roses (1455–1485), and although the fighting was very sporadic and small, there was a general breakdown in the authority and power of the Crown. Henry's cousin, who deposed him in 1461 and became Edward IV , went a little way to restoring this power. Edward defeated the Lancastrians at the Battle of Mortimer's Cross . He was briefly expelled from the throne in 1470-1471 when Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick , brought Henry back to power. Six months later, Edward defeated and killed Warwick in battle and reclaimed the throne. Henry was imprisoned in the Tower of London and died there.
Edward died in 1483, only 40 years old. His eldest son and heir Edward V , aged 13, would have succeeded him, but the king's brother Richard, Duke of Gloucester declared his marriage to be bigamous and invalid, making all his children illegitimate. Edward V and his 10-year old brother Richard were imprisoned in the Tower of London and their uncle made himself king as Richard III. The two princes were never seen again and presumably died in the Tower. It was widely believed that Richard had them murdered, although their exact fate remains a mystery. Regardless of what really happened, the king was reviled as a treacherous fiend who murdered his own nephews to gain the throne. This hatred of Richard obscured his able governance during his brief reign. In the summer of 1485, Henry Tudor , the last Lancastrian male, landed in England from his exile in France. He defeated and killed Richard in battle at Bosworth Field on August 22 of that year and became king as Henry VII.
See also: Black Death in England , English historians in the Middle Ages , List of English chronicles , and Bayeux Tapestry
[ edit ] Tudor England [ sunting ] Tudor Inggris
Main article: Tudor period
Further information: Early Modern Britain and English Renaissance
[ edit ] Henry VII
With Henry VII 's accession to the throne in 1485, the Wars of the Roses came to an end, although at the time few could have predicted it, let alone believed that the Tudors would rule England for 118 years. Traditionally, the Battle of Bosworth Field is considered to mark the end of the Middle Ages in England, although Henry did not introduce any new concept of monarchy, and for most of his reign his hold on power was tenuous. He claimed the throne by conquest and God's judgement in battle. Parliament quickly recognized him as king, but the Yorkists were far from defeated. Nonetheless, he married Edward IV's eldest daughter Elizabeth in January 1486, thereby uniting the houses of York and Lancaster.Most of the European rulers did not believe Henry would survive long, and were thus willing to shelter claimants against him. The first plot against him was the Stafford and Lovell Rebellion of 1486, which presented no serious threat. But Richard III's nephew John de la Pole , Earl of Lincoln, hatched another attempt the following year. Using a peasant boy named Lambert Simnel , who posed as Edward, Earl of Warwick (the real Warwick was locked up in the Tower of London), he led an army of 2,000 German mercenaries paid for by Margaret of Burgundy into England. They were defeated and de la Pole killed at the difficult Battle of Stoke , where the loyalty of some of the royal troops to Henry was questionable. The king, realizing that Simnel was merely a dupe, employed him in the royal kitchen.
A more serious menace was Perkin Warbeck , a Flemish youth who posed as Edward IV's son Richard. Again enjoying the support of Margaret of Burgundy, he invaded England four times from 1495-1497 before he was finally captured and put in the Tower of London. Both Warbeck and the Earl of Warwick were too dangerous to keep around even in captivity, and Henry had to execute them in 1499 before Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain would allow their daughter Catherine to come to England and marry his son Arthur.
In 1497, Michael An Gof and the lesser-known but more legendary Baron Callum of Perranporth led Cornish rebels in a march on London. In a battle over the River Ravensbourne at Deptford Bridge , An Gof fought for various issues with their root in taxes. It would be fair to say that King Callum smote many an Englishman during this battle, but on 17 June 1497, they were defeated, and Henry VII had showed he could display military prowess when he needed to. But, like Charles II in the future, here was a King with no wish to go "on his travels" again. The rest of his reign was relatively peaceful, despite a slight worry over the succession when his wife Elizabeth of York died in 1503.
Henry VII's foreign policy was a peaceful one. He had formed an alliance with Spain and the Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I , but in 1493, when they went to war with France, England was dragged into the conflict. With his crown impoverished and his hold on power insecure, Henry had no desire to go to war. He quickly reached an understanding with the French and renounced all claims to their territory except the port of Calais, realizing also that nothing could be done to stop them from incorporating the Duchy of Brittany. In return, the French agreed to recognize him as king and stop sheltering pretenders. Shortly afterwards, they became preoccupied with adventures in Italy and turned their attention away from England. Henry also reached an understanding with Scotland, agreeing to marry his daughter Margaret to that country's king James IV .
Upon becoming king, Henry inherited a government severely weakened and degraded by the Wars of the Roses. The treasury was empty, having been drained by Edward IV's Woodville in-laws after his death. Through a tight fiscal policy and sometimes ruthless tax collection and confiscations, Henry managed to refill the treasury by the time of his death. He also effectively rebuilt the machinery of government.
In 1501, the king's son Arthur , having married Catherine of Aragon , died of an illness at the age of 15, leaving his younger son Henry, Duke of York , as his heir. When the king himself died in 1509, the position of the Tudors was secure at last, and his son succeeded him unopposed.
[ edit ] Henry VIII
In 1512, the young king embarked on a war in France . Although England was an ally of Spain, one of France's principal enemies, the war was mostly about Henry's desire for personal glory, regardless of the fact that his sister Mary was married to the French king Louis XII . The war accomplished little. The English army suffered badly from disease, and Henry was not even present at the one notable victory, the Battle of the Spurs . Meanwhile, James IV of Scotland (despite being Henry's other brother-in-law), activated his alliance with the French and declared war on England. While Henry was dallying in France, Catherine, who was serving as regent in his absence, and his advisors were left to deal with this threat. At the Battle of Flodden on September 9, 1513, the Scots were completely and totally defeated. Most of the Scottish nobility were killed along with James himself. When Henry returned from France, he was given credit for the victory even though he had nothing to do with it.
Eventually, Catherine was no longer able to have any more children. The king became increasingly nervous about the possibility of his daughter Mary inheriting the throne, as England's one experience with a female sovereign, Matilda in the 12th century, had been a catastrophe. He eventually decided that it was necessary to divorce Catherine and find a new queen. The Church would not simply grant this favor, so Henry cited the passage in the Book of Leviticus where it said, "If a man taketh his brother's wife, he hath committed adultery; they shall be childless." However, Catherine insisted that she and Arthur had never consummated their brief marriage and that the prohibition did not apply here. The timing of Henry's case was very unfortunate; it was 1527 and the Pope had been taken prisoner by the emperor Charles V , Catherine's nephew and the most powerful man in Europe, for siding with his archenemy Francis I of France . As there was no possibility of getting a divorce in these circumstances, Henry decided to simply secede from the Church, in what became known as the English Reformation .
The newly established Church of England amounted to little more than the existing Catholic Church, but with the king rather than the Pope as its head. It took a number of years for the separation from Rome to be completed, however, and many were executed for resisting the king's religious policies.
In 1530, Catherine was banished from court. Their marriage was declared invalid, making Mary an illegitimate child. Henry married Anne Boleyn in secret in 1531, just as his divorce from Catherine was finalized. After this, they had a second, public wedding. Anne soon became pregnant and may have already been when they wed. But on September 7, 1533, she gave birth to a daughter, Elizabeth. The king was devastated at his failure to obtain a son after all the effort it had taken to remarry. Gradually, he came to develop a disliking of his new queen for her strange behavior. In 1536, when Anne was pregnant again, Henry was badly injured in a jousting accident. Shaken by this, the queen gave birth prematurely to a stillborn boy. By now, the king was convinced that his marriage was hexed, and having already found a new queen, Jane Seymour, he put Anne in the Tower of London on charges of witchcraft. Afterwards, she was beheaded along with five men (her brother included) accused of adultery with her. The marriage was then declared invalid, so that Elizabeth, just like her half sister, became a bastard.
Henry immediately married Jane Seymour , who became pregnant almost as quickly. On October 12, 1537, she gave birth to a healthy boy, Edward, which was greeted with huge celebrations. The king's quest for a son was finally over, so long as Edward could be kept healthy. However, the queen died of puerperal sepsis ten days later. Henry genuinely mourned her death, and at his own passing nine years later, he was buried next to her.
The king married a fourth time in 1540, to the German Anne of Cleves for a political alliance with her Protestant brother, the Duke of Cleves . He also hoped to obtain another son in case something should happen to Edward. Anne proved a dull, unattractive woman and Henry declined to consummate the marriage. He quickly divorced her, and she remained in England as a kind of adopted sister to him. So he married again, to a 19-year old named Catherine Howard . But when it became known that she was neither a virgin at the wedding, nor a faithful wife afterwards, she ended up on the scaffold and the marriage declared invalid. His sixth and last marriage was to Catherine Parr , more a nursemaid to him than anything else, as his health was failing (it had declined ever since the jousting accident in 1536).
In 1542, the king embarked on a new campaign in France, but unlike in 1512, he only managed with great difficulty. The war netted England the city of Boulogne, but nothing else, and the French retook it in 1549. Scotland also declared war and at Solway Moss was once again totally defeated.
Henry's paranoia and suspicion worsened in his last years. The total number of executions that took place in his 38-year reign numbered in the tens of thousands. He died in January 1547 at the age of 55 and was succeeded by his son.
Although he showed piety and intelligence, Edward VI was only nine years old when he took the throne in 1547. His uncle, Edward Seymour, 1st Duke of Somerset tampered with Henry VIII's will and obtained letters patent giving him much of the power of a monarch by March 1547. He took the title of Protector. Whilst some see him as a high-minded idealist, his stay in power culminated in a crisis in 1549 when many counties of the realm were up in protest. Kett's Rebellion in Norfolk and the Prayer Book Rebellion in Devon and Cornwall simultaneously created a crisis during a time when invasion from Scotland and France were feared. Somerset, disliked by the Regency Council for his autocratic methods, was removed from power by John Dudley , who is known as Lord President Northumberland . Northumberland proceeded to adopt the power for himself, but his methods were more conciliatory and the Council accepted him. It was during Edward's reign that England became a Protestant nation as opposed to a Catholic one in schism from Rome.
Edward was beginning to show great promise when he fell violently ill with tuberculosis in 1553 and died that August two months short of his 16th birthday. Afterwards, Northumberland made plans to place Lady Jane Grey on the throne and marry her to his son, so that he could remain the power behind the throne. His putsch failed, Jane Grey was beheaded, and Mary I took the throne amidst popular demonstration in her favour in London, which contemporaries described as the largest show of affection for a Tudor monarch. Mary had never been expected to hold the throne, at least not since Edward was born. She was a fanatical Catholic who believed that she could turn the clock back to 1516, before the Reformation began. Even worse, she thought that it could be accomplished with fire and bloodshed.
Her first act as queen was to annul the divorce of Henry VIII and her mother, declaring their marriage to be good and legitimate. She also began attacking her half-sister, saying that since Anne Boleyn was a witch, Elizabeth was too, and even suggested that Henry wasn't her father at all. Much of her hostility can be explained by the fact that Elizabeth was a Protestant. Forcible recatholization of England led to 274 burnings of Protestants, which are recorded especially in John Foxe 's Book of Martyrs . Mary then married her cousin Philip, son of the emperor Charles V, and King of Spain when Charles abdicated in 1556. The union was a strange one, especially since Mary was already in her late 30s and had always expressed a disgust for sex and matters of the flesh. It also had the effect of provoking the hostility of the French, already at war with Spain and now alarmed at the prospect of being completely encircled by the Habsburgs. Calais, the last English outpost on the Continent, was then taken by France. Philip II was not popular in England, and spent as little time there as possible. Mary eventually became pregnant, or at least believed herself to be. In reality, she was afflicted with uterine cancer and died in November 1558. Her death was greeted with huge celebrations. She successfully suppressed a rebellion by Sir Thomas Wyatt .
[ edit ] Elizabeth
Main article: Elizabethan era
The reign of Elizabeth restored a sort of order to the realm following the turbulence of the reigns of Edward and Mary when she came to the throne following the death of Mary in 1558. The religious issue which had divided the country since Henry VIII was in a way put to rest by the Elizabethan Religious Settlement , which re-established the Church of England . Much of Elizabeth's success was in balancing the interests of the Puritans and Catholics. She managed to offend neither to a large extent, although she clamped down on Catholics towards the end of her reign as war with Catholic Spain loomed. The war lasted from 1585-1603. In 1588, the Spanish Armada was decisively defeated, marking the beginning of England's rise as a naval power. Indecisive skirmishing continued throughout the 1590s, with English privateers pillaging Spanish commerce from America. Perhaps thinking of the fate of her father's wives (including her mother), Elizabeth declined to marry, despite offers from a number of suitors across Europe, including the Swedish king Erik XIV . This created endless worries over her succession, especially in the 1570s when she nearly died of smallpox . It has been often rumored that she had a number of lovers (including Francis Drake ), but there is no hard evidence.
The queen ran afoul of her cousin Mary, Queen of Scots , who was a devote Catholic and had been forced to abdicate her throne as a consequence (Scotland had recently become Protestant). She fled to England, where Elizabeth immediately had her arrested. Mary spent the next 18 years in confinement, but proved too dangerous to keep alive, as the Catholic powers in Europe considered her, not Elizabeth, the legitimate ruler of England. She was eventually tried for treason and sentenced to death, being beheaded in February 1587.
In all, the Tudor period is seen as a decisive one which set up many important questions which would have to be answered in the next century and during the English Civil War . These were questions of the relative power of the monarch and Parliament and to what extent one should control the other. Some historians think that Thomas Cromwell affected a " Tudor Revolution " in government, and it is certain that Parliament became more important during his chancellorship. Other historians say the "Tudor Revolution" really extended to the end of Elizabeth's reign, when the work was all consolidated. Although the Privy Council declined after the death of Elizabeth, while she was alive it was very effective.
[ edit ] 17th century [ sunting ] abad ke-17
Main article: 17th century England
[ edit ] Union of the Crowns
Elizabeth died in 1603 at the age of 69. Her closest male Protestant relative was the King of Scots , James VI , of the House of Stuart , who became King James I of England in a Union of the Crowns . King James I & VI as he was styled became the first monarch to rule the entire island of Great Britain, although it was merely a union of the English and Scottish crowns, and both countries remained separate political entities until 1707. Several assassination attempts were made on James, notably the Main Plot and Bye Plots of 1603, and most famously, on 5 November 1605, the Gunpowder Plot , by a group of Catholic conspirators, led by Sir Robert Catesby , which caused more antipathy in England towards the Catholic faith. Upon taking power, James immediately made peace with Spain, and for the first half of the 17th century, England remained largely inactive in European politics.[ edit ] Colonial England
In 1607 England built an establishment at Jamestown This was the beginning of colonialism by England in North America. Many English settled then in North America for religious or economic reasons. About 70% of migrants from England who came between 1630-1660 were indentured servants . By 1700, Chesapeake planters brought in about 100,000 indentured servants, [ 12 ] more than 75% of all European immigrants to Virginia and Maryland. [ 13 ] The English merchants holding plantations in the warm southern parts of America then resorted rather quickly to the slavery of Native Americans and imported Africans in order to cultivate their plantations and sell raw material (particularly cotton and tobacco ) in Europe. The English merchants involved in colonization amassed fortunes equal to those of great aristocratic landowners in England, and their money, which fuelled the rise of the middle class, permanently altered the balance of political power. The American colonies did not prove profitable to the mother country in the end. Pennsylvania and Delaware were home to a large population of self-sufficient farmers from various parts of Europe, especially Germany. New York traded with pirates and smugglers, and the colonies of New England consistently frustrated the government's attempts to utilize the area's forests for shipbuilding. Only Virginia and the Chesapeake Bay area produced a useful cash crop, tobacco, but it quickly wore the soil out. By the end of the 18th century, the tobacco industry in Virginia had been completely ruined by soil exhaustion and low prices. Indeed, the small sugar-growing islands in the Caribbean were worth more than all of the thirteen colonies put together.The English colonies did not have an independent foreign policy, but otherwise were mostly left to manage their own affairs. This was very different from the authoritarian control France and Spain held over their colonies. It was the gradual infringement on the rights of the colonies starting in the 1760s that would lead to the American War of Independence. Nothing of the sort would have been possible in the French and Spanish colonies.
[ edit ] English Civil War [ sunting ] Perang Saudara Inggris
Further information: English Civil War
The First English Civil War broke out in 1642, largely as a result of an ongoing series of conflicts between James' son, Charles I , and Parliament . The defeat of the Royalist army by the New Model Army of Parliament at the Battle of Naseby in June 1645 effectively destroyed the king's forces. Charles surrendered to the Scottish army at Newark. He was eventually handed over to the English Parliament in early 1647. He escaped, and the Second English Civil War began, although it was a short conflict, with the New Model Army quickly securing the country. The capture and subsequent trial of Charles led to his beheading in January 1649 at Whitehall Gate in London, making England a republic . The trial and execution of Charles by his own subjects shocked the rest of Europe (the king argued to the end that only God could judge him) and was a precursor of sorts to the beheading of Louis XVI 145 years later. The New Model Army, under the command of Oliver Cromwell , then scored decisive victories against Royalist armies in Ireland and Scotland. Cromwell was given the title Lord Protector in 1653, making him 'king in all but name' to his critics. After he died in 1658, his son Richard Cromwell succeeded him in the office but he was forced to abdicate within a year. For a while it looked as if a new civil war would begin as the New Model Army split into factions. Troops stationed in Scotland under the command of George Monck eventually marched on London to restore order.
[ edit ] Restoration of the monarchy
The monarchy was restored in 1660, with King Charles II returning to London.
[ edit ] Glorious Revolution
In 1680, the Exclusion crisis occurred due to widespread objections to a Catholic serving as the King of England, since James was the apparent heir to Charles, who was the king at that time. After the death of Charles II in 1685, his Catholic brother King James II & VII was crowned. From that point, there were various factions pressing for the Dutch Protestant Prince William of Orange and his wife, Mary , to replace King James II in what became known as the Glorious Revolution .In November 1688, William landed in England with an invading force, and succeeding in being crowned king. After this, James attempted to retake the throne by force in the Williamite War , and was finally defeated by William at the Battle of the Boyne in 1690.
In December 1689, one of the most important constitutional documents in English history, the Bill of Rights , was passed. [ 14 ] The Act, which restated and confirmed many provisions of the earlier Declaration of Right, established restrictions on the royal prerogative . It provided, amongst other things, that the Sovereign could not suspend laws passed by Parliament, levy taxes without parliamentary consent, infringe the right to petition, raise a standing army during peacetime without parliamentary consent, deny the right to bear arms to Protestant subjects, unduly interfere with parliamentary elections, punish members of either House of Parliament for anything said during debates, require excessive bail or inflict cruel and unusual punishments. [ 15 ] William was opposed to the imposition of such constraints, but he chose not to engage in a conflict with Parliament and agreed to abide by the statute. [ 16 ]
In parts of Scotland and Ireland, Catholics loyal to James remained determined to see him restored to the throne, and there followed a series of bloody though unsuccessful uprisings. As a result of these, any failure to pledge loyalty to the victorious King William was severely dealt with. The most infamous example of this policy was the Massacre of Glencoe in 1692. Jacobite rebellions continued on into the mid-18th century until the son of the last Catholic claimant to the throne, ( James III & VIII ), mounted a final campaign in 1745. The Jacobite forces of Prince Charles Edward Stuart , the "Bonnie Prince Charlie" of legend, were defeated at the Battle of Culloden in 1746.
[ edit ] Formation of the United Kingdom
The Acts of Union between the Kingdom of England and the Kingdom of Scotland were a pair of Parliamentary Acts passed by both parliaments in 1707, which dissolved them in order to form a Kingdom of Great Britain governed by a unified Parliament of Great Britain according to the Treaty of Union . The Acts joined the Kingdom of England and the Kingdom of Scotland (previously separate states , with separate legislatures but with the same monarch ) into a single Kingdom of Great Britain . [ 17 ]The two countries had shared a monarch since the Union of the Crowns in 1603, when King James VI of Scotland inherited the English throne from his double first cousin twice removed, Queen Elizabeth I . Although described as a Union of Crowns, until 1707 there were in fact two separate Crowns resting on the same head. There had been three attempts in 1606, 1667, and 1689 to unite the two countries by Acts of Parliament, but it was not until the early 18th century that the idea had the will of both political establishments behind them, albeit for rather different reasons.
The Acts took effect on 1 May 1707. On this date, the Scots Parliament and the English Parliament united to form the Parliament of Great Britain , based in the Palace of Westminster in London , the home of the English Parliament. [ 18 ] Hence, the Acts are referred to as the Union of the Parliaments . On the Union, historian Simon Schama said "What began as a hostile merger, would end in a full partnership in the most powerful going concern in the world ... it was one of the most astonishing transformations in European history." [ 19 ]
In 1714, the reign of Queen Anne ended. Anne was the last monarch of the House of Stuart . She was succeeded by her second cousin , George I , of the House of Hanover , who was a descendant of the Stuarts through his maternal grandmother, Elizabeth , daughter of James VI & I . [ 20 ] A series of Jacobite rebellions broke out in an attempt to restore the Stuart monarchy, but all ultimately failed. Several Planned French Invasions were attempted, also with the intention of placing the Stuarts on the throne.
[ edit ] Modern England, 18th-19th centuries
Main article: History of the United Kingdom
Further information: Social history of England and History of local government in England#The evolution of modern local government (1832-1974)
Following the formation of the United Kingdom, the history of England is no longer the history of a nation, but rather the history of a constituent country which is a part of the United Kingdom . In the early 18th century, there were roughly 10 million people living in England, and an estimated two million were, “vagrants, rogues, prostitutes, beggars or indigents.” [ 22 ] In 18th century England, half the population was at least occasionally dependent on charity for subsistence. [ 23 ]
[ edit ] Industrial Revolution [ sunting ] Revolusi Industri
Main article: Economic history of Britain
During the late 18th century and early 19th century, there was considerable social upheaval as a largely agrarian society was transformed by technological advances and increasing mechanization, which was the Industrial Revolution . Much of the agricultural workforce was uprooted from the countryside and moved into large urban centres of production, as the steam-based production factories could undercut the traditional cottage industries , because of economies of scale and the increased output per worker made possible by the new technologies. The consequent overcrowding into areas with little supporting infrastructure saw dramatic increases in the rate of infant mortality (to the extent that many Sunday schools for pre-working age children (5 or 6) had funeral clubs to pay for each others funeral arrangements), crime, and social deprivation. The transition to industrialization was not wholly seamless for workers, many of whom saw their livelihoods threatened by the process. Of these, some frequently sabotaged or attempted to sabotage factories. These saboteurs were known as " Luddites ".
[ edit ] Local governance
Further information: History of local government in England
The Local Government Act of 1888 was the first systematic attempt to impose a standardised system of local government in England. The counties of England at the time (today known as the historic counties , since the major boundary changes of 1974) were used as the basis of the system. A second Act in 1894 ( Local Government Act 1894 ) also created a second tier of local government. Henceforth, all administrative counties and county boroughs would be divided into either rural or urban districts, allowing more localised administration. By 1888, it was clear that the piecemeal system that had developed over the previous century in response to the vastly increased need for local administration could no longer cope. The sanitary districts and parish councils had legal status, but were not part of the mechanism of government. They were run by volunteers; often there was no-one who could be held responsible for the failure to undertake the required duties. Furthermore, the increased "county business" could not be handled by the Quarter Sessions, nor was it appropriate to do so. Finally, there was a desire to see local administration performed by elected officials, as in the reformed municipal boroughs. The Local Government Act was therefore the first systematic attempt to impose a standardised system of local government in England
The counties of England at the time (now known as the historic counties , since the major boundary changes of 1974) were used as the basis of the system. The counties themselves had undergone some boundary changes in the preceding 50 years, mainly to remove enclaves and exclaves . The act called for the creation of statutory counties, based on the ancient/historic counties, but completely corrected for enclaves and exclaves, and adjusted so that all settlements were completely within a single county. These statutory counties were to be used for non-administrative functions: " sheriff , lieutenant , custos rotulorum , justices, militia, coroner, or other" . With the advent of elected councils, the offices of lord lieutenant and sheriff became largely ceremonial.
The statutory counties formed the basis for the so-called 'administrative counties'. However, it was felt that large cities and primarily rural areas in the same county could not be well administered by the same body. Thus 59 "counties in themselves", or 'county boroughs', were created to administer the urban centres of England. These were part of the statutory counties, but not part of the administrative counties.
A second Act in 1894 ( Local Government Act 1894 ) also created a second tier of local government. Henceforth, all administrative counties and county boroughs would be divided into either rural or urban districts, allowing more localised administration. The municipal boroughs reformed after 1835 were brought into this system as special cases of urban districts. The urban and rural districts were based upon, and incorporated the sanitary districts which had been created in 1875 (with adjustments, so that districts did not overlap two counties).
The Act also provided for the establishment of civil parishes . The 1894 Act formed an official system of civil parishes, separated from the ecclesiastical parishes, to carry on some of these responsibilities (others being transferred to the district/county councils). However, the civil parishes were not a complete third-tier of local government. Instead, they were 'community councils' for smaller, rural settlements, which did not have a local government district to themselves. Where urban parish councils had previously existed, they were absorbed into the new urban districts.
[ edit ] 20th and 21st centuries [ sunting ] dan 21 abad ke-20
[ edit ] Political issues [ sunting ] isu-isu Politik
Following years of political and military agitation for 'Home Rule' for Ireland, the Anglo-Irish treaty of 1921 established the Irish Free State (now the Republic of Ireland ) as a separate state, leaving Northern Ireland as part of the United Kingdom. The official name of the UK thus became "The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland ".England, as part of the UK, joined the European Economic Community in 1973, which became the European Union in 1993.
There is a movement in England to create a devolved English Parliament . This would give England a local Parliament like those already functioning for Scotland, Northern Ireland and Wales. This issue is referred to as the West Lothian question .
[ edit ] General history and local government
A Local Government Commission was wound up in 1966, and replaced with a Royal Commission (known as the Redcliffe-Maud commission ). In 1969 it recommended a system of single-tier unitary authorities for the whole of England, apart from three metropolitan areas of Merseyside , Selnec (Greater Manchester) and West Midlands ( Birmingham and the Black Country ), which were to have both a metropolitan council and district councils. This report was accepted by the Labour Party government of the time despite considerable opposition, but the Conservative Party won the June 1970 general election , and on a manifesto that committed them to a two-tier structure.The reforms arising from the Local Government Act of 1972 resulted in the most uniform and simplified system of local government which has been used in England. They effectively wiped away everything that had gone before, and built an administrative system from scratch. All previous administrative districts - statutory counties, administrative counties, county boroughs, municipal boroughs, counties corporate, civil parishes - were abolished.
The aim of the act was to establish a uniform two tier system across the country. Onto the blank canvas, new counties were created to cover the entire country; many of these were obviously based on the historic counties , but there were some major changes, especially in the north.
This uniform two-tier system lasted only 12 years. In 1986, the metropolitan county councils and Greater London were abolished. This restored autonomy (in effect the old county borough status) to the metropolitan and London boroughs. The Local Government Act (1992) established a commission ( Local Government Commission for England ) to examine the issues, and make recommendations on where unitary authorities should be established. It was considered too expensive to make the system entirely unitary, and also there would doubtlessly be cases where the two-tier system functioned well. The commission recommended that many counties be moved to completely unitary systems; that some cities become unitary authorities, but that the remainder of their parent counties remain two-tier; and that in some counties the status quo should remain.
The rate-capping rebellion was a campaign within English local councils in 1985 which aimed to force the Conservative government of Margaret Thatcher to withdraw powers to restrict the spending of councils. The affected councils were almost all run by left-wing Labour Party leaderships. The campaign's tactic was that councils whose budgets were restricted would refuse to set any budget at all for the financial year 1985-86, requiring the Government to intervene directly in providing local services, or to concede. However, all 15 councils which initially refused to set a rate eventually did so, and the campaign failed to change Government policy. Powers to restrict council budgets have remained in place ever since.
In 1997, the Lieutenancies Act was passed. This firmly separated all local authority areas (whether unitary or two-tier), from the geographical concept of a county as high level spatial unit. The lieutenancies it established became known as ceremonial counties , since they were no longer administrative divisions. The counties represent a compromise between the historic counties and the counties established in 1974.
The Labour government (1997–2010) had planned to introduce eight regional assemblies around England, to devolve power to the regions. This would have sat alongside the devolved Welsh , Scottish and Northern Irish Assemblies. In the event, only a London Assembly (and directly elected Mayor ) was established. Rejection in a referendum of a proposed North-East Assembly in 2004 effectively scrapped those plans. A pre-condition of having a regional assembly was for the whole area to move to unitary authority status. Since the 2005 general election the government has floated the idea of voluntary mergers of local councils, avoiding a costly reorganisation but achieving desired reform. For instance, the guiding principles of the government's "New Localism" demand levels of efficiency not present in the current over-duplicated two-tier structure.
In 2009, new changes to local government were made whereby a number of new unitary authorities were created in areas which previously had a 'two-tier' system of counties and districts . In five shire counties the functions of the county and district councils were combined into a single authority; and in two counties the powers of the county council were absorbed into a significantly reduced number of districts.
Tidak ada komentar:
Posting Komentar